Visions of Cosmopolitanism: Einstein's World Government

by Greg Whitcher

After World War II and the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, physicists in general and one in particular, ascended to a unique status that had not before and still has not today been matched. Today, the German physicist Albert Einstein is often called the "Father of the Bomb." However, Einstein's scientific work was only remotely responsible for the bomb's development and Einstein was never a member of the Manhattan Project. Einstein's important contribution to the building of the atomic bomb was his use of influence upon President Roosevelt to urge the bomb's development. Immediately following the bomb's deployment to Japan in 1945 however, Einstein was forced to reconsider his political and moral philosophy. In the wake of the destruction of the atom bombs as well as Hitler’s rampage, Einstein endorsed the idea of a supranational world government that could control military action and nuclear weapons without interfering in culture, economy, and national politics. Influenced by his upbringing as a citizen of several nations and the international nature of his career as a scientist, Einstein's life experiences informed his universalist perspective. Based on cosmopolitan ideals of universal understanding, Einstein hoped his vision for world government would foster cooperation and eventually peace.

In Berlin in the 1920s, Einstein met a young Hungarian physicist named Leo Szilard. The two began working together on several projects however none that received great attention. Einstein moved to the United States in 1932 just before Hitler became chancellor of Germany. Szilard remained in Germany until he fled the Nazis to England. While in England, Szilard attended a lecture by Ernst Rutherford on a science-fiction book by HG Wells. Shortly after the lecture while standing at a London stop light, Szilard had the epiphany of the nuclear chain reaction.⁴ It was the epiphany of the nuclear chain reaction that described what would become the central process of the atomic bomb. Aware of the bomb's potential capabilities, Szilard later worried that Hitler's scientists might be able to develop such a weapon. This fear led Szilard to contact his colleague with the greatest political influence, Albert Einstein.

Szilard approached Einstein at Princeton with the hope that President Roosevelt would be quickly briefed on the threat of the atomic bomb.⁷ Through an economist, Alexander Sachs, Leo Szilard and Einstein caught President Roosevelt's attention. A short letter, crafted by Einstein was delivered to Roosevelt, explaining the implications of Germany gaining the ability to produce an atomic weapon based on enriched uranium.

The threat of Germany becoming capable of atomic weapon production fueled a certain level of hysteria which provided the spark necessary to overcome lacking consensus that an atomic weapon was even possible to build. That letter opened a dialogue with the President and eventually led to the creation of the Manhattan Project.⁷After the warnings Einstein was instrumental in sending to Roosevelt, the bomb was not used for the purpose Einstein intended: to deter the Germans. Einstein later said, "Had I known that the Germans would not succeed in producing an atomic bomb, I never would have lifted a finger."⁷

"Today, the physicists who participate in watching the most formidable and dangerous weapon of all time... cannot desist from warning and warning again: we cannot and should not slacken in our efforts to make the nations of the world and especially their governments aware of the unspeakable disaster they are certain to provoke unless they change their attitude towards each other and towards the task of shaping the future. We helped in creating this new weapon in order to prevent the enemies of mankind from achieving it ahead of us. Which, given the mentality of the Nazis, would have meant inconceivable destruction, and the enslavement of the rest of the world..."
* This clip was taken from the website of the American Institute of Physics History Department
(aip.org/history)

In the context of atomic weaponry, the threat of world war was profoundly altered. As a participant of the new atomic age of the 1950s, Einstein was involved in much of the political discourse about atomic weapon control. Einstein frequently reminded the public that the bomb was made as “a preventative measure.”⁷ Following the attacks in Japan, Einstein began to promote the idea of a world government which he thought was the answer to preventing the bomb’s use.⁶ Much of what Einstein experienced in early life contributed to his support and promotion of a world government which others thought was overly optimistic.

Einstein's idealistic and pacifistic tendencies are evident in his youth and were reinforced by several events in his adult life. German schools in the late nineteenth century emphasized mechanical and regimented learning as well as utmost respect for authority.³ From a young age, Einstein had been reflexively opposed to authority and often questioned accepted beliefs. These traits of the German system did not rub well with Einstein and probably deepened his tendency to question any and all authority. "Suspicion against every kind of authority grew out of this...an attitude which has never again left me," said Einstein about his early experiences with the Bible.³ While this inclination would later lead him to great success in theoretical physics, in the German school system it lead Einstein to numerous run-ins with strict teachers.³

Germany's regimented systems alienated Einstein from his homeland and for sometime he lived without citizenship.³ Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Einstein confronted intense German nationalism and militarism as a teenager and into adulthood. "When a person can take pleasure to marching in step to a piece of music it is enough to make me despise him," complained young Einstein. His distaste for these movements eventually pushed Einstein to revoke his German citizenship in 1896 and until 1901 Einstein lived without citizenship to any country at all.³ In 1901, Einstein was granted Swiss citizenship and would remain a Swiss citizen until his death (also becoming an Austrian and American citizen and once again a German during different periods). These facts seem trivial but when considering the politics and ideals Einstein later advocated they seem to have held lasting significance upon his beliefs. These are the early events that shaped Einstein's world view to be Cosmopolitan; the German was really a citizen of many nations and the world. Einstein had first-hand experience with the advantages and disadvantages of being a formal citizen.³ Constantly frustrated by the German system that emphasized the importance of authority and tradition over creativity and free thought, Einstein’s distrust for authority was strengthened and eventually translated to his hopes for a world government.

In the same fashion, Einstein's career as a scientist reflected these merits of international cooperation. By the 20th century, effective channels of communication between scientists in different countries were beginning to take shape.⁶ The Manhattan Project for example drew scientists from Italy, Germany, Hungary, and more. This trait of scientific inquiry must have further blurred Einstein's self-identity as a citizen under any particular power. In addition, the international nature of science probably suggested to Einstein that a system based upon cosmopolitan ideals already existed. As Einstein grew to be an international icon, he participated in many conversations with intellectuals from outside of the scientific community notably the American philosopher Sidney Hook, Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore, and British writer Bertrand Russell.5 Discussing the important issues of the world, Einstein's perspective was informed by scholars and thinkers of many countries.

Much like in his intellectual endeavors, Einstein was not afraid to suggest radical and decisive steps forward in politics. He was not blind to the obstacles in front of actually creating a world government but still acknowledged and encouraged the major steps it would take to make it a reality. It was also recorded that Einstein thought large-scale non-violent resistance based on the work of Gandhi was a potentially useful method for making world government a reality.⁴ The world government of Einstein would be “supra-national” meaning its decisions would be binding for all member states. Einstein’s vision for world government also took on the trait of the scientific sharing of ideas. “If a sufficient number of states pool their strength they can …take the risk of not maintaining military secrets,” said Einstein in a 1947 Atlantic article. Representatives at the world government would be elected by the citizens of each member state but Einstein was aware that a powerful veto could handicap the organization. Furthermore, the world government would pool the member nations military forces leaving only local police for the member nations.

"Large parts of the world are faced with starvation, while others are living in abundance. The nations were promised liberation and justice, but we have witnessed and are witnessing, even now, the sad spectacle of liberating armies firing into populations who want their independence and social equality, and supporting in those countries by force of arms, such parties and personalities as appear to be most suited to serve vested interests. Territorial questions and arguments of power, obsolete though they are, still prevail over the essential demands of common welfare and justice."
* This clip was taken from the website of the American Institute of Physics History Department
(aip.org/history)

Criticisms of Einstein's supranational government were widespread. Many intellectuals who opposed the idea saw it as another way that Western capitalism would extend its imperialistic tendencies.⁶ The United States was in a favorable position after the war and most Americans saw little incentive to embark on a project to construct a world government. Einstein subscribed to these thoughts and proposed that the established superpowers (the US, UK, and USSR) should draft the constitution. Einstein realized the tenuousness of US-Russian relations and had posited a few tactics for gaining the Russians trust in the new government. However, Einstein did not believe that the Russians should be allowed to prevent the creation of a supranational government in case they opposed it (Atlantic). Einstein was invited to the Soviet Union on several occasions but never accepted the offer. In the same fashion, Einstein's discourse on communism with Sidney Hook and other communists was always apprehensive.

By what moral philosophy could a world government rule? As a citizen of the world, Einstein's perspective embodied the ideas of Cosmopolitanism. Cosmopolitans see each individual as part of a global whole. Undivided by boundaries and governments, the cosmopolitan ideal holds that each person is innately connected to everyone around them. This philosophical movement therefore uses this unity as basic foundation upon which they build universal ethics.

Kwame Anthony Appiah, a Princeton professor of philosophy, recently published a book titled Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers in which he sketches the fundamental tenets of the moral philosophy known as Cosmopolitanism. Appiah defines the philosophy as based on a moral obligation to help people beyond our families and communities simply because we are all humans and citizens of the "global village." Appiah encourages conversation, which he explains to be a global engaged interaction between the peoples of the world in order to encourage learning and understanding.¹ However, it is important to note that Appiah does not see cultural relativism as part of his Cosmopolitanism because he asserts there is an absolute moral code of humanity. In this way, Appiah rides the line between universalism and cultural relativism because he does not wish for homogeneity (or fear that Cosmopolitanism will create it) and also hopes we can draw answers and conclusions that cultural relativists like anthropologists are hesitant to make. Most importantly, cosmopolitanism does not intend to create a single conclusion or outcome for this international conversation. Finally, cosmopolitans do not think or expect that everyone will become a cosmopolitan. Appiah says, "you can be genuinely engaged with the ways of other societies without approving, let alone adopting them."¹

Yet Appiah does not favor a world government. In his book Cosmopolitanism, he finds three flaws in the nature of a supranational authority that Einstein promoted. First, Appiah fears that a world government would easily become too powerful and could potentially abuse its overwhelming authority. Second, Appiah sees world government as likely to be unresponsive to local needs. Einstein would certainly disagree with this statement because in his vision of world government, the supranational government would only be involved in international security and not national politics, economy, and culture. Last in Appiah's attack is the restriction that he thinks world government would impose on experiments in political structure and new institutions. Again, Einstein would refute that his vision need not interfere with such freedoms.

Einstein’s world government was never exactly realized however his contributions to the politics of nuclear weapons were great. Both his life as a scientist and upbringing under the traumatic nationalism of pre-war Germany informed his vision of world government. The cosmopolitan ideals that Einstein advocated are still valid and often popular in the world today of globalization and increasing concern for atomic weapons control. Although Einstein came to fame for his work with theoretical physics, history may place greater and greater importance on his ideas for world peace and nuclear arms control.

1 Appiah, Kwame Anthony. 2006. Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

2 Einstein, Albert. 1947. Atomic War or Peace. Atlantic Monthly, November.

3 Isaacson, Walter. 2007. Einstein: His Life and Universe. New York: Simon and Schuster.

4 Isaacson, Walter. 2008. Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb. Discover Magazine, March.

5 Pais, Abraham. 1982. 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

6 Sayen, Jamie. 1985. Einstein in America. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.

7 Schweber, Sylvan S. 2008. Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.